Table 1 Descriptive characteristics of all included studies and their citations (Peters et al. 2015)

Type of data

NVDRS

91

Abolarin et al.(2019); Adhia et al.(2019a); Adhia et al.(2020); Adhia et al.(2019b); Arseniev-Koehler et al.(2020); Arseniev-Koehler et al.( 2021); Azrael et al.(2016); Barber et al.( 2016); Barber and Hemenway (2011); Barber et al.( 2021); Blair et al.(2016a); Braun et al.( 2021); Bush(2020); Choi et al.(2019a); Choi et al.(2017); Choi et al.(2019b); Clark et al.(2020); Conner et al.(2019); Craun et al.(2022); Davidson et al.(2021a); Davidson et al.(2021b); De Veauuse Brown and Watson(2022); DeBois et al.(. 2020); DeGue et al.( 2016); Dixon et al.(2020); Fowler et al.(2015); Fowler et al.(2021); Fraga Rizo et al.(2021); Frazier et al.(2017); Gold et al.(2022); Graham et al.(2022); Graham et al.(2021); Hemenway et al.( 2010); Hemenway and Solnick( 2015); Hemenway and Solnick( 2017); Holland et al.(2018); Holland et al.(2017); Hunter et al.(2022); Kafonek et al.(2022); Karch and Nunn(2011); Karch et al.(2013); Kennedy et al.(2021); Klevens and Leeb( 2010); Ko et al.(2021); Logan et al.(2019); Logan et al.(2015); Logan et al.(2013); Logan et al.( 2008); Lohman et al.(2021); Lord( 2012); Lord(2014); Lyons et al.(2019); Lyons et al.(2021a); Lyons et al.(2021b); Massetti et al.(2018); McNally et al.(2016); Mennicke et al.(2021); Mezuk et al.(2003); Mezuk et al.(2021); Michaels and Letson(2021); Miller et al.(2021); Miller and Rensing( 2021); Murfree et al.(2022); O’Donnell et al.(2019); Orlins et al.(2021); Patton et al.(2017); Petrosky et al.(2018); Ream( 2020); Ream(2019); Roberts et al.(2019); Robiner and Li( 2022); Ruch et al.( 2019); Ruch et al.(2021); Schiff et al.(2015); Schmutte et al.(2021); Schwab-Reese et al.(2021); Shawon et al.(2021); Skopp et al.(2019); Smith et al.(2011); Smith et al.(2014); Solnick and Hemenway( 2019); Sordello and Small( 2020); Stone et al.(2016); Tian et al.(2016); Tian et al.(2019); Wallace et al.(2020); Wasserman and Stack( 2011); Wertz et al.(2020); Williams et al.(2018); Wong et al.( 2022); Yau and Paschall( 2018)

State-specific VDRS

18

Annor et al.( 2019); Austin et al.(2016); Briker et al.(2019); Brown and Seals( 2019); Hempstead et al.( 2013); Jiang et al.(2018); Kafka et al.( 2021); Kohlbeck et al.(2020); Kohlbeck et al.(2022); Lavender et al.(2016); Mason et al.( 2021); Mezuk et al.(2015); Presser et al.(2022); Scheyett et al.(2013); Scheyett et al.(2019); Weis et al.(2006); Yousuf et al.(2017); Zeoli et al.(2021)

NVISS

2

Fujiwara et al.(2009); Gabor et al.(2008)

Type of narratives

Coroners/medical examiners

3

Briker et al.( 2019); Ko et al.(2021); Mezuk et al (2019)

Law enforcement

1

Robiner and Li( 2022)

Both

106

Abolarin et al.(2019); Adhia et al.(2019a); Adhia et al.(2019b); Adhia et al.(2020); Annor et al.(2019); Arseniev-Koehler et al.(2020); Arseniev-Koehler et al.(2021); Austin et al.(2016); Azrael et al.(2016); Barber and Hemenway(2011); Barber et al.(2016); Barber et al.(2021); Blair et al.(2016a); Braun et al.(2021); Brown and Seals( 2019); Bush(2020); Choi et al.(2019a); Choi et al.(2017); Choi et al.(2019b); Clark et al.(2020); Conner et al.(2019); Craun et al.(2022); Davidson et al.(2021a); Davidson et al.(2021b); De Veauuse Brown and Watson(2022); DeBois et al.(2020); DeGue et al.(2016); Dixon et al.(2020); Fowler et al.(2015); Fowler et al.(2021); Fraga Rizo et al.(2021); Frazier et al.(2017); Fujiwara et al.(2009); Gabor et al.(2008); Gold et al.(2022); Graham et al.(2022); Graham et al.( 2021); Hemenway et al.( 2010); Hemenway and Solnick( 2015); Hemenway and Solnick( 2017); Hempstead et al.(2013); Holland et al.(2018); Holland et al.(2017); Hunter et al.(2022); Jiang et al.(2018); Kafka et al.(Kafka et al. 2021); Kafonek et al (2022); Karch and Nunn(2011); Karch et al.(2013); Kennedy et al.(2021); Klevens and Leeb( 2010); Kohlbeck et al.(2020); Kohlbeck et al.(2022); Lavender et al.(2016); Logan et al.(2019); Logan et al.(2015); Logan et al.(2013); Logan et al. (2008); Lohman et al.(2021); Lord(2012); Lord( 2014); Lyons et al. (2019); Lyons et al.(2021a); Lyons et al.(2021b); Mason et al.(2021); Massetti et al.(2018); McNally et al.(2016); Mennicke et al.(2021); Mezuk et al.(2015); Mezuk et al.(2021); Michaels and Letson(2021); Miller et al.(2021); Miller and Rensing( 2021); Murfree et al.(2022); O’Donnell et al.(2019); Orlins et al.(2021); Patton et al.(2017); Petrosky et al.(2018); Ream( 2020); Ream(2019); Roberts et al (2019); Ruch et al.(2019); Ruch et al.(2021); Scheyett et al.(2013); Scheyett et al.( 2019); Schiff et al.( 2015); Schmutte et al.(2021); Schwab-Reese et al.( 2021); Shawon et al.(2021); Skopp et al.(2019); Smith et al.(2011); Smith et al.(2014); Solnick and Hemenway( 2019); Sordello and Small( 2020); Stone et al.(2016); Tian et al.(2016); Tian et al.(2019); Wallace et al.(2020); Wasserman and Stack( 2011); Weis et al.(2006); Wertz et al.(2020); Williams et al.(2018); Wong et al.(2022); Yau and Paschall( 2018); Yousuf et al.(2017); Zeoli et al.( 2021)

Unspecified

1

Presser et al.( 2022)

Type of deaths

Suicide

48

Azrael et al.(2016); Barber et al.(2021); Brown and Seals( 2019); Choi et al.(2019a); Choi et al.(2017); Choi et al.(2019b); Clark et al.(2020); Davidson et al.(2021a); Davidson et al.(2021b); Dixon et al.(2020); Fowler et al.(2015); Gold et al.(2022); Hempstead et al.( 2013); Holland et al.( 2017); Karch et al.(2013); Kennedy et al.(2021); Kohlbeck et al.(2020); Kohlbeck et al.(2022); Logan et al (2015); Lohman et al.(2021); Lyons et al.(2019); Mason et al.(2021); Massetti et al.(2018); Mennicke et al.(2021); Mezuk et al.(2003); Mezuk et al.(2015); Miller et al.(2021); O’Donnell et al.(2019); Orlins et al.(2021); Petrosky et al (2018); Ream(2020); Ream( 2019); Roberts et al.( 2019); Ruch et al.(2019); Ruch et al.(2021); Scheyett et al.(2019); Schiff et al.(2015); Schmutte et al.(2021); Skopp et al.(2019); Stone et al.(2016); Tian et al.(2016); Tian et al.(2019); Wasserman and Stack(2011); Weis et al.(2006); Williams et al.(2018); Wong et al.(2022); Yau and Paschall( 2018)

Homicide (single, multiple, and mass homicide)

24

Abolarin et al.(2019); Adhia et al.(2019a); Adhia et al.(2019b); Blair et al.(2016a); De Veauuse Brown and Watson(2022); DeBois et al.( 2020); Fowler et al.(2021); Fraga Rizo et al.(2021); Frazier et al.(2017); Fujiwara et al.(2009); Hemenway and Solnick( 2017); Jiang et al.(2018); Kafonek et al.(2022); Karch and Nunn(2011); Lyons et al.(2021a); Lyons et al.(2021b); Presser et al.(2022); Robiner and Li( 2022); Shawon et al.(2021); Smith et al.(2011); Smith et al.(2014); Wallace et al.(2020); Yousuf et al.(2017); Zeoli et al.(2021)

Homicide followed by suicide

9

Adhia et al.(2020); Holland et al.(2018); Logan et al.(2019); Logan et al.(2013); Logan et al.(2008); McNally et al.(2016); Murfree et al.(2022); Patton et al.(2017); Schwab-Reese et al. (2021)

Legal intervention

7

Arseniev-Koehler et al.( 2021);Barber et al10; Conner et al.(2019); DeGue et al.(2016); Lord(2012); Lord (2014); Wertz et al.(2020)

Unintentional firearm

4

Barber et al.(2011); Hemenway et al.(2010); Hemenway and Solnick( 2015); Solnick and Hemenway( 2019)

Undetermined intent

1

Briker et al.(2019)

Multiple types of deaths

18

Arseniev-Koehler et al.(2020); Austin et al.(2016); Braun et al.(2021); Bush(2020); Craun et al.( 2022); Gabor et al.(2008); Graham et al.(2022); Graham et al.(2021); Hunter et al.(2022); Kafka et al.(2021); Klevens and Leeb( 2010); Ko et al.(2021); Lavender et al.(2016); Mezuk et al.(2021); Michaels and Letson(2021); Miller and Rensing( 2021); Scheyett et al.(2013); Sordello and Small( 2020)

Age groups

Infants or children under 18

19

Adhia et al.(2019a); Briker et al.(2019); Fujiwara et al.(2009); Hemenway and Solnick( 2015); Hemenway and Solnick( 2017); Holland et al.(2018); Holland et al.(2017); Hunter et al.(2022); Karch et al.(2013); Klevens and Leeb( 2010); Kohlbeck et al.(2020); Logan et al.(2013); Lyons et al.(2021a); Michaels and Letson(2021); Murfree et al.(2022); Orlins et al (2021); Presser et al.( 2022); Ruch et al.(2021); Sordello and Small( 2020)

Youth or adolescents (i.e., individuals both younger and older than 18)

9

Adhia et al.( 2019b); Adhia et al.(2020); Bush(2020); Choi et al.(2017); Clark et al.(2020); Graham et al.(2022); Ream(2020); Ream(2019); Ruch et al.(2019)

Young adults (e.g., 18–34 years)

1

O’Donnell et al.(2019)

Middle-aged adults

2

Schiff et al.(2015); Stone et al.(2016)

Older adults (i.e., 50 +)

8

Choi et al.( 2019b); DeBois et al.(2020); Karch and Nunn(2011); Ko et al.(2021); Lohman et al.(2021); Mezuk et al.( 2003); Mezuk et al.(2015); Shawon et al.(2021)

Gender

Men

5

Arseniev-Koehler et al.( 2021); Hempstead et al.(2013); Logan et al.(2019); O’Donnell et al.(2019); Schiff et al.(2015)

Women

6

Austin et al.( 2016); De Veauuse Brown and Watson(2022); Kafonek et al92; Mennicke et al43; Miller and Rensing108; Wallace et al124

LGBTQ + 

4

Clark et al.(2020); Lyons et al.(2019); Ream( 2020); Ream(2019)

Professions

Active duty or veterans

4

Logan et al.(2015); O’Donnell et al.(2019); Patton et al.(2017); Skopp et al.(2019)

Healthcare professionals (e.g., nurses, physicians, psychologists)

5

Braun et al.(2021); Davidson et al.(2021a); Davidson et al.(2021b); Gold et al.(2022); Robiner and Li( 2022)

Farmers and agricultural workers

3

Kennedy et al.(2021); Kohlbeck et al.(2022); Scheyett et al.(2019)

Health conditions

Cancer

1

Massetti et al.(2018)

Mental/brain disorders or injury

5

Annor et al.(2019); Miller et al.(2021); Schmutte et al.(2021); Tian et al.(2016); Tian et al(2019)

Chronic pain

1

Petrosky et al.(2018)

Vulnerable/minority subgroups

Pregnant or postpartum women

3

Austin et al.(2016); Miller and Rensing( 2021); Wallace et al.(2020)

Non-Hispanic Asians/Pacific Islanders

1

Wong et al.(2022)

Currently or formerly incarcerated individuals

6

Choi et al.(2019a); Dixon et al.(2020); Fraga Rizo et al.(2021); Mennicke et al.(2021); Ruch et al.(2019); Scheyett et al.(2013)

Purpose for analyzing narratives

Thematic analysis of circumstances of death

38

Adhia et al.( 2019b);Arseniev-Koehler et al.(2020); Arseniev-Koehler et al.(2021); Briker et al.(2019); Brown and Seals( 2019); Choi et al.(2019b); Davidson et al.(2021a); Davidson et al.(2021b); DeBois et al.(2020); Gabor et al.(2008); Holland et al.(2018); Holland et al.(2017); Hunter et al.(2022); Kafonek et al.(2022); Ko et al.(2021); Kohlbeck et al.(2020); Kohlbeck et al.(2022); Lord(2014); Lyons et al.(2021a); Mennicke et al.(2021); Mezuk et al.(2003); Mezuk et al.(2015); Murfree et al.(2022); Orlins et al.(2021); Ream( 2020); Ream(2019); Ruch et al.(2021); Scheyett et al.(2013); Schiff et al.(2015); Schwab-Reese et al.(2021); Shawon et al.(2021); Skopp et al.(2019); Smith et al.(2011); Stone et al.(2016); Wertz et al.(2020); Wong et al.(2022); Yau and Paschall( 2018); Yousuf et al.(2017)

Case identification

49

Abolarin et al.(2019); Adhia et al.(2019a); Adhia et al.(2020); Annor et al.(2019); Austin et al.(2016); Azrael et al.(2016); Barber et al.(2011); Barber et al.(2016); Barber et al.(2021); Blair et al.(2016a); Braun et al.(2021); Bush (2020) Clark et al.(2020); Conner et al.(2019); Craun et al.(2022); DeGue et al (2016); Dixon et al.(2020); Frazier et al.(2017); Gold et al.(2022); Graham et al.(2022); Graham et al.(2021); Hemenway and Solnick( 2015); Jiang et al.(2018); Kafka et al.(2021); Karch et al.(2013); Kennedy et al.(2021); Lavender et al.(2016); Logan et al.(2015); Logan et al.(2008); Lohman et al.(2021); Lyons et al.(2021a); Massetti et al.(2018); McNally et al.(2016); Michaels and Letson(2021); Miller et al.(2021); Miller and Rensing( 2021); O’Donnell et al.(2019); Ream( 2019); Roberts et al.(2019); Robiner and Li( 2022); Schmutte et al.(2021); Sordello and Small( 2020); Tian et al.(2016); Tian et al.(2019); Wallace et al.(2020); Wasserman and Stack( 2011); Weis et al.(2006); Williams et al.(2018); Zeoli et al.(2021)

Both thematic analysis and case identification

23

Choi et al.( 2019a); Choi et al.(2017); De Veauuse Brown and Watson(2022); Fowler et al.(2015); Fowler et al.( 2021); Fraga Rizo et al.(2021); Fujiwara et al.(2009); Hemenway et al.( 2010); Hemenway and Solnick( 2017); Hempstead et al.( 2013); Karch and Nunn (2011); Klevens and Leeb( 2010); Logan et al.(2019); Logan et al.(2013); Lord(2012); Lyons et al.(2021b); Mason et al (2021); Patton et al.(2017); Petrosky et al.(2018); Presser et al.(2022); Scheyett et al.(2019); Smith et al.(2014); Solnick and Hemenway( 2019)

Evaluate missingness and length of narratives

1

Mezuk et al.(2021)

Methodological tools for analyzing narratives

Manual review

81

Abolarin et al.(2019); Adhia et al.(2019a); Adhia et al.( 2020); Adhia et al.(2019b); Barber and Hemenway(2011); Barber et al (2016); Barber et al.(2021); Blair et al.(2016a); Braun et al.(2021); Briker et al (2019); Brown and Seals( 2019); Bush(2020); Choi et al.( 2019a); Choi et al.(2017); Conner et al.( 2019); Davidson et al.(2021b); DeBois et al.(2020); DeGue et al.( 2016); Dixon et al.(2020); Fowler et al.(2021); Fraga Rizo et al.(2021); Frazier et al (2017); Fujiwara et al (2009); Gabor et al.(2008); Gold et al.(2022); Graham et al (2022); Graham et al.(2021); Hemenway et al.(2010); Hemenway and Solnick( 2015); Hemenway and Solnick( 2017); Hempstead et al.( 2013); Holland et al.(2018); Holland et al.( 2017); Hunter et al.(2022); Jiang et al.(2018); Kafka et al.( 2021); Kafonek et al.(2022); Karch and Nunn(2011); Karch et al.(2013); Kennedy et al (2021); Klevens and Leeb( 2010); Kohlbeck et al.(2020); Kohlbeck et al.(2022); Lavender et al(2016); Logan et al.(2019); Logan et al.(2019); Logan et al.( 2013); Logan et al.(2008); Lord( 2012); Lord(2014); Mason et al (2021); McNally et al.( 2016); Mennicke et al.(2021); Mezuk et al.(2015); Michaels and Letson(2021); Miller and Rensing( 2021); Murfree et al.(2022); Orlins et al.( 2021); Patton et al.(2017); Presser et al.(2022); Ream(2020); Robiner and Li (2022); Ruch et al.( 2019); Ruch et al.(2021); Scheyett et al.(2013); Scheyett et al.(2019); Schiff et al.(2015); Schmutte et al.(2021); Schwab-Reese et al.( 2021); Shawon et al.(2021); Skopp et al.(2019); Smith et al.(2011); Smith et al.(2014); Solnick and Hemenway( 2019); Sordello and Small( 2020); Stone et al.(2016); Weis et al.(2006); Wertz et al.(2020); Williams et al.(2018); Wong et al.(2022); Yousuf et al.(2017); Zeoli et al.( 2021)

Keyword search

9

Annor et al.( 2019); Clark et al.(2020); Fowler et al.(2015); Lyons et al.( 2019); Massetti et al.(2018); Petrosky et al.(2018); Ream( 2019); Schmutte et al.(2021); Yau and Paschall(2018)

Both keyword search and manual review

13

Azrael et al.(2016); Choi et al.(2019b); Craun et al.(2022); De Veauuse Brown and Watson(2022); Lyons et al.(2021a); Lyons et al.( 2021b); Miller et al.(2021); O’Donnell et al.(2019); Roberts et al.( 2019); Tian et al (2016); Tian et al. (2019); Wallace et al.(2020); Wasserman and Stack( 2011)

Natural language processing or data science

6

Arseniev-Koehler et al.( 2020); Arseniev-Koehler et al.( 2021); Davidson et al.(2021a); Ko et al.(2021); Lohman et al.(2021); Mezuk et al.(2003)

Other/unclear

2

Austin et al.( 2016); Mezuk et al.(2021)

Assessment of data completeness and reliability

Address missing narratives

17

Adhia et al.( 2019a); Barber et a (2016); Brown and Seals( 2019); Choi et al.(2017); Davidson et al.(2021a); Gabor et al.(2008); Kafonek et al.(2022); Klevens and Leeb( 2010); McNally et al.(2016); Mezuk et al.(2021); Mezuk et al.(2003); Scheyett et al.(2019); Shawon et al.(2021); Skopp et al.(2019); Wertz et al.( 2020); Wong et al.(2022); Yau and Paschall( 2018)

Linkage to external data sources

36

Annor et al.( 2019); Arseniev-Koehler et al.( 2021); Austin et al.(2016); Barber and Hemenway(2011); Barber et al.(2016); Conner et al.( 2019); DeBois et al.(2020); Fowler et al.( 2021); Gold et al.(2022); Graham et al.(2022); Graham et al.(2021); Hemenway and Solnick( 2015); Hemenway and Solnick( 2017); Hempstead et al.( 2013); Ko et al.(2021); Lavender et al (2016); Logan et al.(2015); Lohman et al.(2021); Mezuk et al.( 2015); O’Donnell et al.(2019); Petrosky et al.(2018); Ream (2020); Ream(2019); Robiner and Li( 2022); Scheyett et al.(2013); Shawon et al.(2021); Skopp et al.(2019); Solnick and Hemenway( 2019); Tian et al.(2016); Tian et al.(2019); Wallace et al (2020); Weis et al.(2006); Wertz et al.(2020); Williams et al.(2018); Yau and Paschall (2018); Zeoli et al.(2021)

Assess agreement between narratives and quantitative coded variables

48

Adhia et al.( 2019a); Arseniev-Koehler et al.(2021); Azrael et al.(2016); Barber and Hemenway(2011); Barber et al (2016); Braun et al.(2021); Brown and Seals (2019); Bush(2020); Choi et al.(2019a); Conner et al.(2019); Davidson et al57; Davidson et al.(2021b); DeGue et al.(2016); Fowler et al.( 2015); Fowler et al.(2021); Fraga Rizo et al.( 2021); Frazier et al.(2017); Fujiwara et al.(2009); Gold et al.(2022); Graham et al.(2022); Graham et al.(2021); Hemenway et al.( 2010); Hemenway and Solnick( 2015); Hemenway and Solnick( 2017); Kafka et al.(2021); Karch and Nunn(2011); Karch et al.(2013); Klevens and Leeb( 2010); Lavender et al.( 2016); Logan et al.(2019); McNally et al.(2016); Mennicke et al.(2021); Mezuk et al.(2003); O’Donnell et al.(2019); Orlins et al.(2021); Patton et al.( 2017); Ream(2020); Ream(2019); Ruch et al.(2021); Schiff et al.( 2015); Smith et al.(2011); Solnick and Hemenway(2019); Sordello and Small( 2020); Stone et al.(2016); Wallace et al.( al. 2020); Weis et al.(2006); Wertz et al.(2020); Yau and Paschall(2018)

Assess agreement between narratives and external data

6

Barber et al.(2011); Barber et al.(2016); Conner et al.(2019); Klevens and Leeb(2010); Robiner and Li (2022); Williams et al.(2018)

Assess agreement between C/ME and LE narratives

1

Gabor et al. (2008)